Jeffrey, Junghwan Oh
To what extent the Korean media portrayed Korean massacres of the Great Kanto Earthquake during colonial to postcolonial period?
Getting all the sources
When I met with Professor Bayliss to discuss about this project in late March and early April, there were two main obstacles in this project. First one was whether I have available primary sources for this project. (Because in Trinity Raether library, there seemed to be no single primary source of Korean newspaper or magazine that was written during colonial and postcolonial period.) Therefore, Professor Bayliss told me there must be some available related sources at Yale University library nearby. (New Haven CT, only 30 miles away from Trinity.) But what came to my mind was that there must be some available sources through online because I heard that the South Korean government has actually been spending huge amount of money and effort under the project called “Liquidation Project of Japanese Collaborators / 친일청산프로젝트”. After searching through internet, I have found two major websites that actually stored vast amount of primary resources that were created from early 1900s to the 1960s. One of the websites was called “The History of Korean Independence Movement Online / 한국독립운동사 정보시스템” (search.i815.or.kr). From this website, I could actually find out not only newspaper and documents but also various pictures of weapons, armors, pen, Korean flag etc that were used by Korean Independence Army during 35 years of colonial period. The website was simply designed and was very easy to use. I just needed to type the key word and related primary sources came out.
As you can see above, when I typed with the key term “관동대지진” in Korean (Great Kanto Earthquake in Engilsh,) more than 232 related sources came out. Then the sources were categorized into 5 different parts which were..
- 원문정보 (Primary Text)
- 전시자료 (Exhibition References)
- 소장자료 (Possessive Materials)
- 소장도서 (Possessive Books)
- 독립유공자 공훈자료 (Merit Materials written by Independence fighters)
I decided to look only at the first section of Primary Text because I felt that the rest of them were irrelevant towards my project. For example, the second Exhibition Reference only contained picture of Kim Jisup’s handkerchief. (Followed by some helpful description next to the picture.) It said Kim Jisup was the person who actually tried to bomb Imperial Palace of Tokyo in retaliation for the Korean massacre of the Kanto earthquake. The first section of Primary Text however, contained many relevant sources, which were mostly editorials from newspapers in Korea and reports that were published by Korean people living in overseas.
The second website which I also used for my sources was called “Korean History Database / 한국사데이터베이스”. (db.history.go.kr) Korean History Database was created along with South Korean governmental project called, History Informatization Process. The website was created by one of South Korean government branches called “National History Compilation Committee / 국사편찬위원회.” Different from the first website, it seemed like Korean History Database contained bigger amount of primary sources that were published in newspaper. In fact when I typed with the keyword “Great Kanto Earthquake”, it even came out with different category of newspaper companies during the colonial period: It contained primary sources of 6 different Korean newspaper companies that talked about Korean massacre right after the Kanto Earthquake.
As we could see from the picture above, there were 451 sources that talked about Great Kanto Earthquake. We could also notice that there were 103 sources from the 4th section called 연속간행물 / Sequential Periodicals. In this section, all 103 sources were written by 6 different newspapers of Tonga, Shidae, Joongwai, Chosun, Shinhan and Jayou.
Methodology
After successfully solving the first problem of searching for primary sources, the second major obstacle was then how could I use this vast sources to really explain how the massacre was portrayed by the Korean media. In order to do that, I decided to narrow down what to use for my sources that were comprised of newspaper, written articles and reports. With these, I decided to divide my project into two big parts: Portrayal of the massacre in colonial and post-colonial period.
For the first section of the colonial period, I looked at different characteristics of Korean newspaper companies that was published years from 1910-1945. I have found out that there were some newspaper companies that were more cooperative to the Japanese government-general, therefore their portrayal of the massacre was described little implicit or soft, whereas other newspaper companies that were so called more pro-independence described the massacre little more explicitly (directly) despite Tokyo controlled most of the Korean press with full censorship. I also looked at articles that were published by Koreans living in overseas and saw how their portrayal were different from the newspapers that were published in Korea.
For the second part which discussed the massacre during the postcolonial period, I looked at both North and South Korean media source (From 1945 – present) and how they tried to portray the massacre in 1923. Although the Korean peninsula is currently divided since 1945, both north and south have always been united when it came to the topic of Japanese atrocities in Korea during the colonial period. Therefore, I felt that the two governments (starting from the formation of two separate nations in 1948) must have negative view towards the massacre however, how they would portray this be different. Therefore, for the second section, I decided to compare and contrast how the two Korean governments portrayed the massacre after August 1945.
Portrayal of the massacre during the colonial period (1910-1945)
Before we go into the portrayal, I felt it is very important to first learn about different characteristics of Korean newspaper during the colonial period because different Korean newspaper actually described the massacre rather very differently. During the early stage of Japanese colonial period, it was illegal for the Koreans to run their own newspaper companies. However after March 1st movement in 1919, Japanese government began to allow Korean newspaper along with their Culture Rule. Then, all of the newspaper was again blocked in 1940 when Japanese government declared another phase of their colonial rule that was described more radical and cruel. (Pacific War) Japanese occupation in Korea eventually ends with the Japanese’ surrender to the allies and Korea eventually gains her independence.
“Three major Korean newspaper during the colonial period”
- Tonga Ilbo (동아일보/東亞日報) / Established in April 1920 and ceased in 1940.
- Chosun Choongang Ilbo (조선중앙일보/朝鮮中央日報) / Established in March 1933, it was eventually ceased by the Japanese government in 1936 after internationally erasing Japanese flag from Son Ki Jung’s uniform who was Berlin Olympic gold medalist in marathon.
- Chosun Ilbo (조선일보/朝鮮日報) / Established in March 1920 and was ceased by Japanese government in late 1940. Chosun Ilbo known to have the most pro-Japanese style out of the three. In fact, Chosun Ilbo was the Korean newspaper that was most supportive for Japanese invasion in Manchuria in 1937. Their headline in Showa 15 years (January 1st 1940) show how pro-Japanese newspaper they were.
https://mirror.enha.kr/wiki/%EC%A1%B0%EC%84%A0%EC%9D%BC%EB%B3%B4
As we can see in the picture above, Chosun Ilbo even put pictures of Japanese Empire and Empress right in the center of their headline (1). However, Japanese government in August 1940 even ceased Chosun Ilbo under their new phase of colonial rule. It was also really interesting to notice that Chosun Ilbo was the only Korean newspaper that easily complied with the government’s seizure plan.
Now I will first begin to analyze three major Korean newspapers that were published in Korea. After reading their articles, we could find out how strong the censorship was measured to the Korean press. Stories that criticized Japan’s atrocity after the earthquake were virtually could not be found from the Korean press. For example, in Chosun Choongang Ilbo that was published in September 8th 1935,
Newspaper: Chosun Choongang Ilbo, 8th September1935
Title name: 관동 대지진 13주기, 동경동포 추도회, 동경 YMCA서 진행 / 13th Memorial Service for victims of our Korean compatriots from Kanto Earthquake, Proceeding in Tokyo YMCA.
It was really interesting to find out that the article only talked about memorial services of Korean victims during the Kanto earthquake. It never used with the word “massacre” but only used the term “victims” or “casualties” that came solely from the earthquake. The article was written less than a paragraph and only talked about the venue where the memorial service would be held. Another interesting part was that even though this paper was published in Korea, the article writes that the venue would be in YMCA Tokyo. This proved how it was virtually impossible to “directly” write about any articles that were related with Koreans and the Kanto earthquake.
http://db.history.go.kr/item/imageViewer.do?levelId=npda_1924_09_01_v0002_0280
Newspaper: Tonga Ilbo / 1st September 1924 (Article written in the far left corner.)
Title name: 오늘은 구월일일! / Today is September the first!
How Korean newspaper wrote about the masascre “indirectly” was also shown from Tonga Ilbo (picture above.) Different from previous Chosun Choongang article however, Tonga Ilbo “cleverly” brought out the massacre topic by using the various numbers of indirect context of Korean phrases and vocabularies. Still in this article, Tonga also could not actually use direct word “massacre” nor any negative words that could be found out by the Japanese. From this article, it seemed like that Tonga Ilbo could be categorized to more of anti-government style. Their context really showed how the paper has cleverly used so-called “mild vocabularies & phrases” to deliver the massacre to the public and at the same time, did not arouse any trouble from the point of Japanese government.
The article says.
“오늘은 9월1일! 세월이 흘러서 작년에 이런 호외를 발행하는게 얻그제 같은데, 어느덧 또다시 9월 1일 을 당하였다. 멀리 동에 동포가 몇 천명이나 죄없이 죽었는가. 우리는 피로 물들인 9월1일을 다시 맞이했다. 고요히 작년을 생각하면 가슴이 막히어 할말을 잃는다.” (Korean version)
“Today is September the first! It seems like a yesterday when we distributed such “extras”. However, the 1st of September has yet came to us once again. Thousands of our countrymen in the “east” had died without any guilt. Which means we have again met the September first that was “covered with blood”. When we think of what had happened last year, I lost for words with my heart clogged.” (English version) (2)
From this article, I could actually recognize some words that Tonga had intentionally used to avoid from Japanese censorship. For example, they have used the term. Extras or 호외 instead of using the massacre. (Implying how important the earthquake and Korean massacre was to the point of Korean viewers.) They also indirectly talked about the victims in Japan by replacing Japan as the place located “east” from the Korean peninsula. Lastly, the term “covered with blood” emphasizes how cruel the massacre was conducted to our countrymen. Using so-called “mild and indirect vocabularies” was actually one of methods for various Korean newspapers companies in order to avoid themselves from the Japanese censorship. This article could became an clear evidence which showed that It was true “Japanese racist attitudes led to the massacre of thousands of Koreans right after the Great Kanto earthquake, an event which Michael Weiner recalled a “water-shed in the history of Korean minority group.” (3-pg.369) The fact that this history could categorize this incident as “massacre” really made me feel deep resentment as Korean. It also seemed like all of the Korean newspapers were not able to express their thoughts in full detail. That’s why we could notice articles in both Chosun Choongang and Tonga, it was written in less than a paragraph.
Although three major Korean newspapers of Chosun, Chosun Choongang and Tonga were under tight censorship to freely talk about the massacre, documents that were written by Koreans living in overseas were completely different.
Title: Japanese Bloody Rule in Korea written by Koreans in Berlin during Great Meeting of Koreans in Germany. (26th October 1923)
The picture above is a copy of a document called “Japan’s Bloody Rule in Korea” that was published by Koreans in Berlin and distributed in “Great Meeting of Koreans in Germany.” It was written in 26th of October 1923 just two months after the actual earthquake was started. It was really interesting to notice that the article was published into two different languages: English and German. By considering that it was written only 20 days after the Kanto earthquake, I could find out how fast the Korean overseas society could notice the Japanese atrocity. Also, notice how fast the massacre was conducted by the Japanese right after the earthquake. The content of the document was written very straightforward. It first started with telling readers about the past history of ancient Korea by claiming Koreans in nature, was an ethnic group that lived peacefully and united in Korean peninsula for more than 5000 years. Then, it criticized Japanese ambition to the Korean peninsula by claiming that Japan is taking over the peninsula illegally. At the end of the document, it finally talked about Japan in massacring Korean minority after Great Kanto Earthquake.
The paragraph about the Korean massacre was written as (below) (From English version)
“The Japanese Government, as soon as the news of the misfortune was known, dispatched warships and soldiers in order that order might be maintained and plundering prevented. In Yokohama a prison containing three thousand prisoners was opened and the released prisoners began to plunder the remnants of the city. Among these there may have been some Koreans, however the first thing the soldiers did was to spread the cry that the Koreans had set the city on fire, that the Koreans had poisoned the wells, and that the Koreans were now the plunders. The result was a fearful massacre of the Koreans. Wherever they were seen, they were lynched by the brutal mobs. The soldiers were finally compelled to take the Koreans under “protection” and bring them to the military stations. What sort of protection this turned out to be was reported to me by German eyewitnesses. A sharp fire was opened on this sleeping Koreans. If anyone sprang up, so it was the signal for a new blood bath. Of the 15,000 Koreans gathered for protection not many emerged alive.”
How this document portrayed the massacre was exactly same as what I learnt in previous history classes. Yes, Korean minority was falsely targeted by Japanese with rumor which Koreans were setting on fire and poisoning the wells in Tokyo. But more interestingly, this document has “foreign eye witnesses.” that vividly described what has actually happened to Koreans in Tokyo. The document explicitly showed that Germans who reside in Tokyo have actually saw how lynching was only targeted to innocent Koreans by Japanese and German foreigners described the situation as a “blood bath.” The document even proved the massacre with the numerical evidence. “15,000 Koreans were gathered from protection but not many were alive.” I actually could not find such detailed descriptions of the massacre from any of previous Korean newspapers. When I translated Chosun and Tonga articles from Korean to English, what I found were either articles that only told date and venue for memorial address for Korean “victims”.
A manifesto that was written by Korean Association in Japan right after the earthquake could also be found.
Title: 기억해라 우리 조선 동포들이여!! / Remember our Korean (Chosun) People!! written by Korean Association in Japan, written in year 1924.
I personally thought this manifesto contained great importance because it was written by Korean Association right in the center of Japan that criticized talked about the Korean massacre. From the fact that it was written only a year after the incident and it was distributed in Japan, we could postulate that there also was a great level of animosity of the Korean minorities living in Japan. Looking at the context that highly criticized the authority and Japanese fabrication in spreading false rumor, it seemed like the manifesto was published rather secretly. The manifesto mainly discussed where and how the rumor has actually started. At the end, they wrote that it was Japanese authority who devised such a cunning idea. I was lucky to have Korean translated version. It says below..
“이 악회(惡戱)는 과연 어떤 자의 사주로 나왔던 것일까 이것을 조사에 따라서 고심하고 우리들은 그 진상을 알기에 이르렀다. 가나가와 현 경찰부와 내무성과 경보국은 강도,약탈 이라고 말하는 죄명 하에 요꼬하마 형무소에 수감되어 있는 입헌노동당 (立憲勞動黨) 야마구찌 마사요시 (山口正憲) 일파가 유포하였기 때문이라고 말해지고 있지만, 우리의 조사는 이런 유언비어의 출저가 내무성에 있는 것이다 라고 확증하고 있다. 실제로 작년 12월 15일에 중위원 본회의 석상에 있어서 헌정회의 국회의원 나가이 류타로 (永井柳太郞)군이 9월2일 내무성으로부터 후하바시 (船橋) 무선전신을 통하여 각처에 발신한 전보로서 낭독한 전문은 무엇보다 살아있는 증거이다.” (One part of the manifesto that was translated from Japanese to Korean)
“After thinking about who had devised such a evil rumor, we have finally come to a concluding point. What Kanagawa prefecture police department and Department of Interior were claiming was it was Yamaguchi Masayoshi and his men Constitutional Labor Party, who first spread this false information. However, our investigation secures positive evidence that this rumor actually came out directly from the Department of Interior. In fact, telegram which was sent by politician Nagai Ryutaro from the department to different departments through Huhabashi cable on 2nd of September is one of our clear evidences that proves this rumor is falsely created.” (Translated from Korean into English)
I viewed that this manifesto contained great importance because in here, the Korean residents in Japan could be regarded as “witness” in telling us the truth behind the whole massacre. It was very interesting to learn about their claim that it was actually idea from one of Japanese governmental organizations to create such a false rumor in order to diffuse Japan’s public sentiment that was virtually chaotic after the Kanto earthquake.
The last foreign document which I will discuss is the letter called “Japanese Outrages Against Koreans Protested” that was written by Dr. Floyd W.Tomkins who was one of the presidents of the League of the Friends of Korea. “The League coordinated its work with the Korean Information Bureau. Together, the two organizations published a monthly publication entitled the Korea Review, edited by Seo Jaipil (English name, Philip Jaisohn) which claimed to the only English-language publication dedicated to covering political affairs in Korea, China and Japan ” (4-pg.61) Along with the growing popularities of the Korea Review, The League of the Friends of Korea became the biggest Korean group in the United States.” By June 1920, it reported that 18 branches of the league had been established from Boston to San Francisco with a total membership of 10,000″. (4-61) This letter contained great importance because it not only talked about Japan’s atrocity towards the Koreans during massacre but the letter also has great importance because it was sent to Charles Evans Hughs who was the U.S. Secretary of States during this period. Similar to German document “Bloody Rule in Korea”, this letter was also sent 2 months after the earthquake and “uses eye witness of American citizens” (when German witness were used from Bloody Rule in Korea) in order to show the world how the massacre went along in detail.
Excerpt from the 2nd page of the letter (Circled in red from the picture above.)
“Another American citizen, W.H.Stevens, on Tuesday night, September 4th, 1923, hired an automobile to take himself, his wife, his sister-in-law.. The auto was stopped by Japanese soldiers and Mr. Stevens and his party were compelled to witness the preparation for the execution of eight Koreans, who were to be shot. The soldiers apparently enjoying the horror of the party, instead of shooting the Koreans bayoneted them, compelling them to die by inches. The mutilated bodies were then thrown into the highway and the party was forced at pistol point to drive the auto over the dead bodies and were threatened a similar fate to that of the Koreans if they disobeyed..”
Portrayal of the massacre during the postcolonial period (1945-present)
After Korea gained her independence in August 15 1945 and the two Koreas were formed three years later. It seemed like that public sentiment of the Korean people (time before the Korea was divided 1945-48) on Kanto massacre was still the same or even worse. From the article of Kookminbo that was written in 30th October 1946, (Korea under U.S. military government) it writes..
Newspaper : Kookminbo / 국민보 (Published in 30th/Oct/1946) (Article Highlighted)
Title name: 학살당한 동포 추도 / Commemorating our compatriots who were massacred by the Japanese.
http://search.i815.or.kr/OrgData/OrgList.jsp?tid=ns&id=GM1946103003-03
“9월1일은 1923년 일본 동경 지진 당시 왜적들이 악독한 계획 밑에 무참히 우리 수만명 동포가 학살된 날이다. 우리 3000만 동포 어느 누구의 가슴속엔들 이날의 분이 가시였으라. 우리는 과거에 있어서 이날을 기념할 자유조차 빼앗겼는데… 이번에 재일 조선인 연맹 서울 위헌회에서는 반일 운동자 구원회와 공동 주최하여 9월2일 오후 2시부터 종교 기독 청년회 강당에서 추도 기억 대회를 할것이다.” (Korean version)”
“September First was the day when millions of our compatriots were brutally massacred by Japanese Wae pirates during the 1923 Tokyo earthquake. I am sure no one from our 30 million Korean people have forgotten this anger. In the past during colonial period, we didn’t even have our own freedom to commemorate those victims… Now, we will have official commemorating ceremony which will held in Christian Youth Auditorium at 2pm Second of September cosponsered by Korean Association in Japan Seoul Branch and Salvation Organization for Anti-Japanese patriots.” (Translated to English)
Kookminbo / 국민보 was one of the earliest overseas Korean newspapers that was published in Hawaii, August 1913. (5-pg.1). It was really interesting to notice differences in the context of same article with & without Japanese censorship. When Tonga Ilbo “indirectly” talked about the 2nd year commemoration day for the victims during the colonial period, How “Kookminbo” portrayed the massacre with the similar topic of commemoration day was very opposite. For example, vocabularies which Kookminbo used was very straight forward. They described Japanese actually as Wae pirates, term which Koreans have despised Japan since Three Kingdom Period. Or even, lamented Korea’s weakness by not protecting their citizens during the colonial period.
However, when the two Korean governments were formed in 1948, Japanese massacre from Kanto Earthquake were portrayed little differently from South & North Korean governments. From South Korean media, I could not find much information in the 60s and 70s probably due to peaceful mood between ROK and Japan from their 1965 reconciliation diplomatic treaty. Rather, many recent articles which talked about the Kanto massacre in relationship with Japan’s recent history textbook controversy could be found. Since 2013, it seemed like South Korean media have “constantly brought up the issue of Kanto massacre with Japan’s policy in their history textbook.” along with rightist movement led by Japanese Prime Minister, Abe Shinzo.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X6b5d2ZeYno
Title: 일, 요코하마, “관동 대지진 조선일 학살” 교과서 왜곡 / Yokohama Education Committee distorted their history textbook about Korean massacres during Kanto Earthquake.
Video clip from South Korean YTN news. (August 2013)
Video talks about how Yokohama Education Committee has deleted a sentence, “Japanese military and policemen have killed Koreans” and changed the expression “massacre” to “killing”. Main reason for this change came out from Yokohama city politicians who claimed such sentences and wordings would negatively affect history awareness of Japanese secondary students. Japanese government officially does not recognize Korean massacre in Kanto Earthquake and this has exacerbated along with PM Abe’s takeover in Japanese cabinet.
Or even, the South Korean media has used this topic for scolding Korean citizens of their lack of historical knowledge about the massacre.
Video 1: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nmp3H_Aedys
Title: “일본의 관동대지진 만행을 침묵하는 한국인의 역사의식 / Lack of Koreans’ historical awareness that silences Japan’s Kanto atrocities.”
Video clip from South Korean SBS documentary
Documentary also criticizes South Korean history education. Interview that starts from 42:40 shows differences in historical awareness between Japanese and Koreans (Japanese were fully aware of the massacre whereas it was opposite for the Koreans.)
Case for North Korean media was different. It seemed to me regime was actually using the massacre in order to solidify hostile relationship between DPRK and Japan. According to the regime’s major Rodong (Labor) Newspaper that was published in September 2014, it describes the massacre…
Rodong Newspaper / 노동신문 (2014)
Title name: 간토땅을 피로 물들인 일제의 조선인살육만행 / Japanese Empire’s Korean slaughter that developed into bloodshed in Kanto area. (Highlighted paragraph translated.)
http://www.uriminzokkiri.com/index.php?ptype=gisa2&no=192509
Uriminzokiri (우리민족끼리) : Official North Korean internet news channel
“원래 사무라이기질을 타고난데다가 민족 배타주의가 몸에 푹 배인 일제 살인귀들은 장총, 일본도, 단도, 창대창 등 각종 흉기들을 가지고 조선사람들을 닥치는대로 무참히 탄압학살하였다. 일제는 조선사람들을 보기만 하면 쏴죽이고 찔러 죽이고 불태워죽이거나 물에 던져 죽였으며 부모들이 보는 앞에서 어린이들의 목을 자르거나…..”
“Japanese murderers (or murdering devils) who were born with Samurai characters and have exclusive nationalism by nature, brutally massacred Koreans by using their Japanese sword, dagger and spear. They killed Koreans either by shooting, stabbing, burning, throwing to the water, or even killing Korean infants in front of their parents.” (Translated to English)
North Korean article was described with the most direct wordings compared to any other media. As we could see from the translation, the Rodong paper directly criticizes Japan as a whole. In other words, the paper portrayed the Japanese “ethnicity” as a whole by describing them as a group that tend to have so called “aggressive / invading DNA”. As we could see from the translated paragraph above, the North Korean media used Japanese “people” rather than their imperial government that caused such atrocity to the Korean minorities. I personally felt their portrayal has a clear difference from the South Korean media because it seemed that in the north’s portrayal, they criticized it was fault of the Japanese people which sounded it targets even to the present Japanese people in general. Whereas in the South’s view, they focused more on criticizing the “past” side of Japanese imperialism by linking what Japan is doing right now in regard to numerous animosities Japanese has done to Korea. For example, the apology of comfort women and changes in the middle school history textbook could be viewed commonly in regard of the Japanese massacre in Kanto Earthquake.
Work Cited
- https://mirror.enha.kr/wiki/%EC%A1%B0%EC%84%A0%EC%9D%BC%EB%B3%B4
- http://db.history.go.kr/item/imageViewer.do?levelId=npda_1924_09_01_v0002_0280
- http://www.jstor.org/stable/2384622?seq=1#page_scan_tab_content
- https://books.google.com/books?id=bHehRRyRKysC&pg=PA61&lpg=PA61&dq=league+of+friends+of+korea&source=bl&ots=FN9c40vzvY&sig=MxZ4YZHpE3ix6dfn6RV9v_qPEqc&hl=ko&sa=X&ei=YQo3VZm4IoynyATzooHoBA&ved=0CD8Q6AEwAw#v=snippet&q=evans%20hughs&f=false
- http://www.mediagaon.or.kr/jsp/sch/mnews/gonews/SearchGoDirMain.jsp?code=GMB