Economics of Gender

Month: December 2023 (Page 1 of 2)

Inequalities Faced by LGBTQ+ STEM Professionals

December 12, 2023 /

The LGBTQ+ community has faced discrimination within every field of work. Members of the LGBTQ+ community have been ostracised, ridiculed, and even discredited for their work within their respective fields. The discrimination faced is heightened within the STEM field. Although this field of research is new, we can still analyze the findings that the articles that have been released present. 

Overall, each of the ten articles we researched concluded that members of the LGBTQ+ community who are also in STEM have faced greater discrimination than members of the LGBTQ+ community who are not in STEM. LGBTQ+ STEM professionals have been quoted saying they have felt included, harassed, and ridiculed during their work. (Cech and Waidzunas, 2021). Members of the LGBTQ+ community who are not in STEM have not experienced as much discrimination as members in STEM (Cech and Waidzunas, 2021). Each article focuses on different aspects of the same outcome. One article stated that gay men are 12% more likely to be driven out of the STEM field in comparison to straight men within the same field (Nishat, 2019). Although women within the LGBTQ+ community face hardships and discrimination, they are 2% more likely to join the STEM field (Nishat, 2019). Another study shows that there is significant occupational gender composition, which appears to influence the choices of LGBTQ workers, a majority in gay men and lesbian women (Finnigan, 2020). 

There are some policies that could come into place to fix the divide between LGBTQ+ professionals in STEM and non-LGBTQ+ professionals in STEM. LGBTQ+ professionals in the nursing field have said that there needs to be some sort of education period for “higher-ups” in the medical field (Eliason, 2011). Higher-ups have been remarked as “unfriendly” and not willing to accept the members of the LGBTQ+ community within their field (Eliason, 2011).  An education period for members in every field of work could help benefit members of the LGBTQ+ community, which could lead to the acceptance and lack of discrimination that they are seeking. A policy surrounding the credit for work that has been done could be put into place as well. As stated before, LGBTQ+ members in STEM have been often discredited for their own work/findings solely because of their sexuality. Another policy could be in place to help assure these members of STEM that their work will be recognized regardless of their sexual orientation.

If policies in regards to the equal treatment of LGBTQ+ professionals in STEM do not come into place, then there will be even more of a decline in the amount that want to work within this field. It may seem like a small total as of right now, but if the trajectory that this is on stays the same, then there will be less representation of LGBTQ+ workers in STEM and other working fields. This could turn out to have long-term negative economic effects, seeing that there was starting to be more of a presence of LGBTQ+ in STEM. Without the equality they deserve, they are going to leave the field, which the STEM field will suffer from in the long run.

Research Questions

  • What needs to be done policy-wise to encourage the government to keep data on LGBTQ+ professionals in STEM?
  • Why are women within the LGBTQ+ community more likely to be in STEM than men in the LGBTQ+ community?
  • How can LGBTQ STEM organizations and groups contribute to the sense of community and belonging for LGBTQ+ individuals in the STEM field?

Citations

Cech and Waidzunas, Systemic Inequalities for LGBTQ Professionals in STEM – Science, www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abe0933. Accessed 19 Oct. 2023. 

Eliason, Michele J., et al. “Https://Www.Sciencedirect.Com/Science/Article/Abs/Pii/S8755722311000329?via%3Dihub.” Science Direct , www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S8755722311000329?via%3Dihub. 

Nishat, and Please enter your name here. “New Data Examines Presence of LGBTQ People in Stem.” Open Access Government, 19 Nov. 2020, www.openaccessgovernment.org/lgbtq-people-in-stem/98054/.

Discrimination’s Toll on Women’s Health

December 12, 2023 /

By Annika Dyczkowski and Libby Harris

Overview

Women have faced discrimination throughout history in all walks of life. While it is more understood now in modern day how discrimination affects a woman’s financial freedom and independence, people are still failing to understand the dramatic effects that this discrimination can have on women’s health, both physical and mental. These adverse health consequences for women can manifest in numerous ways and in both the short-term and long-term. Some of these include diminished sleep quality, elevated C-reactive protein (CPR) levels which are linked to an increased risk for heart attacks, heightened anxiety and depression, and overall poor self-assessment. Should the woman be a mother, these health repercussions can adversely affect both the child and the broader family unit. Health problems, as such, can also lead to more of these women having to exit the labor force altogether, leading to less financial stability and the hindrance of women gaining leadership positions. Whether examining the intersectionality of discrimination in workplace experiences or a women’s living environment, there is an emphasis on the need for a comprehensive understanding that accounts for a multitude of factors. Research has shown that a woman’s experience with discrimination does have a direct link to resulting health impacts, regardless of the other factors outside of gender. 

Policy Suggestions

It has become evident that discrimination adversely impacts the health of women and it is imperative to put an end to it. The allocation of funds, time, and effort in workplaces is of the utmost importance for resolving women’s continual discrimination in the workplace. Research presents that individuals, oftentimes, do not recognize some behaviors as harmful and reinforce an abusive or sexist workplace environment; these actions can be corrected formally through educational programs, changes in the organization of reporting structures, and mandatory workplace training. Proposed policies could incorporate a zero-tolerance approach, leading to the removal of individuals engaged in discriminatory practices. Additionally, policy could seek to provide a guidance or wellness staff member to assist both women and men if there are thoughts of anxiety and depression surrounding the workplace. 

Consequences without Intervention

Without the implementation of the proposed policies, women will continue to suffer in both the short and long term. Women who remain in workplaces that perpetuate gender inequality will continue to undergo occupational discrimination that is harmful to their mental and physical wellbeing. The results of subsequent studies reveal that women who are targets of dissatisfactory workplace experiences are more aggrieved by their supervisors than their coworkers. This finding implies that women could have less respect for their supervisors, causing a burdening and toxic corporate culture due to a lack of workplace standards.

The result of poor health from workplace discrimination could also shift women’s attitudes towards their occupation, losing the perseverance and mental inclination to perform well at work, hindering women’s career progression in the long run; this lack of mental stability linked to corporate confidence could result in being overlooked for promotion decisions or important projects, or poor performance evaluations that they would not have been penalized for otherwise. 

The poor treatment that women receive, consequently reflecting on their health, could also cause them to leave the workforce, feeling unmotivated and disinterested for the sake of their wellbeing. This consequence implies there would be less women with their own wage and disposable income, less women in the workforce, and less women with the ability to invest in their health, resulting in a troubling cycle of poor health. 

If women continue to undergo antagonizing workplace culture, their health will continue to depreciate; this can be manifested as poor sleep conditions, confidence levels, and more disturbingly adverse effects like infant mortality or cardiovascular disease. Women’s inability to invest in their health due to poor workplace conditions can have detrimental effects on their mental and physical wellbeing, making policy implementation even more important to avoid these consequences. 

Research Questions

  1. Are women who are unemployed as susceptible to the effects of discrimination as those who work full-time or part-time? 
  2. Are women more vulnerable to enduring specifically mental health challenges arising from their occupational experiences?
  3. How does wage discrimination specifically impact the mental and physical well-being of women?

References

Andersson, Matthew A., and Catherine E. Harnois. “Higher Exposure, Lower Vulnerability? The Curious Case of Education, Gender Discrimination, and Women’s Health.” Social Science & Medicine, vol. 246, 2020, p. 112780, doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2019.112780. 

Beatty Moody, Danielle L., et al. “Everyday Discrimination Prospectively Predicts Inflammation across 7‐years in Racially Diverse Midlife Women: Study of Women’s Health across the Nation.” Journal of Social Issues, vol. 70, no. 2, 2014, pp. 298–314, doi:10.1111/josi.12061.

Pennington, Andy, et al. “The health impacts of women’s low control in their living environment: A theory-based systematic review of observational studies in societies with profound gender discrimination.” Health & Place, vol. 51, 23 Feb. 2018, pp. 1–10, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2018.02.001.

Phillips, Susan P. “Including Gender in Public Health Research.” Public Health Reports (1974-), vol. 126, 2011, pp. 16–21. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/41639299.

Sojo, Victor E., et al. “Harmful workplace experiences and women’s occupational well-being.” Psychology of Women Quarterly, vol. 40, no. 1, 2015, pp. 10–40, https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684315599346. 

Gender Dynamics and the Division of Household Labor

December 12, 2023 /

By Tyler Gordon and Jack Ginter

Overview

Traditionally, there has been a gendered division of labor, often characterized by stereotypical roles where men are expected to engage in paid work outside the home, while women are typically responsible for domestic tasks and caregiving. The gender dynamics of household division of labor often refers to the way in which tasks and responsibilities are divided between men and women within the household. As of recently, women have become increasingly engaged in labor market activities, with the most dramatic increase in mother’s employment outside the home. The two-earner household model has overtaken the traditional male breadwinner model in Europe as well as in the United States (Dribe, Stanford, & Buhler, 2009). Although there have been great advancements in employment rates and women’s time in paid work have increased, there are arguments that their time spent in unpaid work has not declined enough. There are many factors contributing to this. Research suggests that parenthood, education level, household income, and occupation all have dramatic impacts on the household division of labor. This blog post will take a deeper dive into this issue.

In almost every industrialized country, the household division of labor remains unbalanced and gender dependent. Women are still often left with the major responsibility for housework and childcare. Though the amount of time women invest in housework has declined in recent decades, the increase in time spent by men in household chores has only partially offset this reduction, except for highly educated professionals (Dribe, Stanford, & Buhler, 2009). Many studies suggest that women still perform the majority of housework. 

Another significant factor of gender division of labor is parenthood. Following the birth of a first child, women invest more in domestic work and less in market work, and the market hours, earnings, and housework of men and women diverge (Musick,Bea, & Gonalons-Pons, 2020). Various factors contribute to this, such as societal expectations, traditional gender roles, and practical considerations. Employers also discriminate against mothers in hiring and wage-setting, viewing them as less competent and dependable, whereas fathers are seen as more responsible (Musick,Bea, & Gonalons-Pons, 2020).

The next factor is income level. Gender disparities vary across the income and wealth distributions. Today, women are now well represented in middle and upper-middle class occupations (e.gManagement and analyst jobs), there are still relatively few women in executive or other top leadership positions in major corporations, large law firms, or investment banking and hedge fund companies, where financial rewards can be exceptionally high (Yavorsky, Keister, Qian, & Thebaud). Higher-income households also typically have greater access to resources for domestic help, such as housekeepers, childcare, providers, or other support services. This can influence the division of labor by relieving both partners of some domestic responsibilities. Lower-income households often follow a more traditional division of labor, where one partner, often the one with the higher income or job stability, focuses on paid employment, while the other takes on a larger share of domestic responsibilities. 

Policy Recommendations

As the studies cited point towards, women tend to show a propensity to seek part-time work schedules to cope with the incompatible demands of work and family  (Webber & Williams, 2008). Women in the labor force feel immense pressure when juggling household responsibilities, especially when the family is dependent on her share of income. Oftentimes, childcare is so expensive today that working full-time and paying for services daily is a worse decision financially than working part-time and staying at home.  One policy intervention that would alleviate this pressure while simultaneously combating the gendered division would be a cheap, state-subsidized child care program that every family has access to. Evidence on subsidized child care consistently shows positive effects on mothers’ labor force reentry and attachment following a birth (Musick, 2020). Another potential intervention would be paid to expand parental leave laws and implement dual-parent leave for both the man and woman after childbirth. Doing so would work to counter the standing gender stereotypes of childcare and household expectations.

Potential Consequences Without Intervention

If we maintain the same on the same track with the current gendered division of labor in society we should not expect the climate ever to get better. Besides the obvious reinforcement of gender role stereotypes that continue to happen, we need to keep in mind two threats posed to women, limited economic opportunities and career stagnation. With the current culture driving women out of the work force and into the home, women face barriers in accessing their respective professions or industries, limiting their economic opportunities and career advancement. Despite making up 47% of the labor force, women still are at a significant deficit to men due to factors like part-time work (Musick, 2020). This not only affects the mother, but also the overall economic welfare of the family. In addition, we stand to lose immense amounts of human capital and talent with women leaving the workforce. Career stagnation for women becomes a greater risk the longer women are out of their careers. With fewer women having the ability to achieve leadership positions, the strength of the labor market suffers as a whole. 

Research Questions

  1. How does the availability and affordability of state-subsidized child care programs impact the division of labor within households, particularly in terms of women’s workforce participation, career advancement, and the reinforcement or challenge of traditional gender roles?
  2. What are the long-term effects of dual-parent leave policies on the gendered division of labor, considering factors such as changes in parental responsibilities, career trajectories, and perceptions of caregiving roles within households?

Infograph

References

Jill E Yavorsky, Lisa A Keister, Yue Qian, Sarah Thébaud, Separate Spheres: The Gender Division of Labor in the Financial Elite, Social Forces, Volume 102, Issue 2, December 2023, Pages 609–632, https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/soad061

Braun, M., Lewin-Epstein, N., Stier, H. and Baumgärtner, M.K. (2008), Perceived Equity in the Gendered Division of Household Labor. Journal of Marriage and Family, 70: 1145-1156. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2008.00556.x

Cohen, P. N. (2004). The Gender Division of Labor: “Keeping House” and Occupational Segregation in the United States. Gender & Society, 18(2), 239-252. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243203262037

Yavorsky, J.E., Kamp Dush, C.M. and Schoppe-Sullivan, S.J. (2015), The Production of Inequality: The Gender Division of Labor Across the Transition to Parenthood. Fam Relat, 77: 662-679. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12189

Musick, K., Bea, M. D., & Gonalons-Pons, P. (2020). His and Her Earnings Following Parenthood in the United States, Germany, and the United Kingdom. American Sociological Review, 85(4), 639-674. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122420934430

Social Norms in Social Media

December 11, 2023 /

Overview

Staying up to date and being constantly connected are some of the reasons why engagement in social media is a “way of being” rather than a mere activity. In today’s world social media usage has become a norm for both men and women. However, the way they use social media differs. Men create social media accounts such as Instagram or Facebook to look for new relationships compared to Women who use the same platform to create and use these accounts to sustain already existing relationships. It is also shown that men and women often engage in different topics.  According to a Facebook investigation, women are more likely to disclose personal information on the social media platform, including family affairs. Men, on the other hand, talk about things like sports. Results showed that not only did men and women have distinct themes that they want to talk about, but that obviously “male” issues (sports, for example) receive more comments from other users while seemingly “female” topics (birthdays, family time) receive more likes. Negative feedback is one of the reasons why female users could be more reserved on the internet. When women voice their ideas, they often receive more derogatory remarks. For example in this Twitter experiment conducted by British journalist Martin Belam – Belam created a spoof account in which he pretended to guest-tweet as different male and female celebrities. When he presented himself as a woman, the account received significantly more offensive comments, and even blatantly misogynist ones. The preferred social media platform for men and women will also differ based on the topics they enjoy discussing online. Men tend to use more text-oriented platforms, whereas women typically favor visual ones. More women use Pinterest, Facebook, and Instagram than men do, while more men use online discussion sites like Reddit or Digg. Sociologist Katrin Tiidenberg of Tallinn University thinks the solution can be found in the traditional role in the family: moms have always taken more family portraits compared to dads. This may also contribute to the explanation of why women upload more selfies than men: the Selfie Exploratory project, for instance, examined 3800 Instagram photos from five different cities worldwide and discovered that there are consistently many more female selfies than male selfies. Younger users exhibit even more marked distinctions from this group; numerous studies have revealed that teenagers frequently construct their social media profiles around gender norms. Teenage boys are more likely to share images of themselves engaging in dangerous activities, drinking, or having sex, whereas girls are more likely to share overtly seductive photos of themselves.

Policy Intervention

Policy intervention in the realm of social media is a challenging topic. One of the main issues involving social media is hate speech. As we saw above women are more prone to receive hurtful comments or interactions from other users compared to men. However, that does not mean a man can’t receive hate on social media platforms. Social media platforms aiming to monitor speech are tasked with a slippery slope concerning the freedom of speech. However, it is their job to review and detect hate speech. For example, In 2016, a group of major tech companies agreed upon the European Commission’s Code of Conduct on Countering Illegal Hate Speech Online, which requires these companies to review hateful speech within a day of receiving a report. This approach is challenging due to high variance in terms of service and operational definitions of hate speech, but it is a significant effort in promoting collaboration and linking legal approaches in the hate speech space. This policy is a step in the right direction but the problem still lies that companies need someone to report an issue of hate speech before the hate speech is investigated. With the technology available today social media companies should be able to monitor their platform more easily finding hate speech before it is reported. This type of policy intervention can be seen in a 2021 report by YouTube and Facebook who both reported a rise in the amount of content they detected and flagged, as well as a higher percentage of content that was flagged by the companies versus by users. This is because automated detection technologies are being used more and more. Because social media companies are not subject to territorial jurisdiction, it is crucial to remember that their obligations are limited to adhering to their terms of service, which may or may not be more stringent than the guidelines established by the international agreements mentioned above. 

Potential Consequences Without Intervention

Potential consequences without intervention include an increased amount of hate speech going undetected and affecting young minds poorly. There is a greater chance that hate speech on the internet will manifest as physical violence if laws banning it are ineffective.. Hate speech has the potential to escalate into hate crimes against specific individuals or groups by normalizing discriminatory beliefs. This can be seen in the widespread use of social media During the January 6, 2021 attack on the capital. Hate speech has the power to polarize people and widen already existing societal divides. Without controls, social media sites could serve as havens for radical ideologies, escalating hostility and conflict between various communities. Hate speech frequently manifests as cyberbullying and harassment, fostering an aggressive atmosphere for those singled out for discrimination based on gender, race, or other attributes. Psychological distress, emotional pain, self-harm, or suicide, can result from this. Finally, social media companies risk damage to their brand if they ignore hate speech. When harmful material is allowed to spread on platforms, users may lose faith in those platforms, which results in a drop in user activity and perhaps legal issues. 

Sources

Atanasova, A. (2016, November 6). Gender-specific behaviors on social media and what they mean for online communications. Social Media Today. https://www.socialmediatoday.com/social-networks/gender-specific-behaviors-social-media-and-what-they-mean-online-communications#:~:text=An%20investigation%20conducted%20by%20Facebook,the%20platform%2C%20categorizing%20them%20into

Belam, M. (2013, July 4). How my spoof BBC question time twitter account showed me the level of abuse political women face on social media. martinbelam.com. https://martinbelam.com/2013/bbcextraghost/

Gender, topic, and audience response: An analysis of user-generated content on Facebook – Meta Research. Meta Research. (n.d.). https://research.facebook.com/publications/gender-topic-and-audience-response-an-analysis-of-user-generated-content-on-facebook/

Herring, S. C. (n.d.). Teens, gender, and self-presentation in social media. https://homes.luddy.indiana.edu/herring/teens.gender.pdf

Selfiexploratory. (n.d.). https://selfiecity.net/selfiexploratory/

Seligson, H. (2016, June 7). Why are more women than men on Instagram?. The Atlantic. https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2016/06/why-are-more-women-than-men-on-instagram/485993/

United Nations Office on Genocide Prevention and the Responsibility to Protect [24]. (2021). Addressing hate speech on social media: contemporary challenges. Unesdoc.unesco.org. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000379177

Navigating the Intersection of Employment, Parenthood, and Mental Health

December 11, 2023 /

By: Anthony DiFederico and Luke Lentine

Summary of findings:

In the United States, nearly 20% of the population, or roughly 50 million people suffer from mental illness. While both men and women experience mental health issues, the long lasting impacts on employment due to mental health are marginally different. A study reported that approximately 20% of men and approximately 25% of women suffer from mental health related illness. Some of the major symptoms of mental health are anxiety and depression and trying to balance work with a busy home schedule can be challenging for all, especially mothers. In the journey of motherhood, the postpartum period is a unique chapter, often marked by emotional rollercoasters. This phase can bring about various mental health challenges for new mothers, such as feelings of anxiety, depression, and overwhelming stress. These symptoms can be influenced by several factors, including the balance between work and caring for the new baby, as well as the level of social support available. A University of Pitt study found that 36% of new mothers’ depression did not subside 1 year postpartum. For these uncontrollable reasons, women are seen as less desirable when compared to the male counterparts not only within the hiring process, but in their ability to earn high ranking jobs in the workplace as a whole. This increased depression and anxiety causes not only a decrease in the health of the woman, but in the entirety of the family. A study showed that the underemployment of women, directly related to their mental health caused low birth weight of their child, with their children being qualified as low weight when being under 2500 grams. The implications of women’s poor mental health created by the workplace leads to more care being needed for their child, which therefore will lead to more stress and depression on the mother as the caring of the child as we know is in their hands and the child will be in more need of support with these challenges related to birth weight. 

Policy Recommendations:

Considering the statistics from our findings, it is clear that policy intervention regarding women’s mental health in the workplace is essential. Flexible work environments such as remote options, and adaptable working hours can be particularly beneficial to the success of parents with young children in the workplace. Additionally providing financial benefits such as covering the cost of childcare services will lessen the burden that caring for children has on new parents both financially and mentally. Additionally, mental health check ups as well as counseling within the office should become a common practice that will not only make the environment more enjoyable for all, but increase productivity of workers. 

Consequences without Intervention:

Due to these findings, women are often overlooked for high ranking positions in the workplace, or not given the opportunity at all through the discrimination in the hiring process. While these symptoms are part of their natural biology and come with balancing their work with their jobs at home, to which they often do more than men, they still end up paying the price in the long run. Additionally, the term “emotional” is very common when describing women in the workplace. This can be very harmful to women’s confidence as according to a study by McKinsey and Company found that only 28% of senior management roles are held by women. The combination of not seeing themselves in positions of high rank and the adjectives used to describe them is detrimental to a woman’s success in the workplace, and will lead to a domino effect lasting generations. 

Research Questions:

  1. What is the impact of various employment statuses (full-time, part-time, unemployed) on the mental health of parents?
  2. How do men and women differ in their responses to the mental health challenges of balancing work and family life?
  3. How does the postpartum stress of stay at home mothers differ from full time and part time workers who are mothers?
  4. What are the long-term mental health effects for parents who juggle full-time employment?
  5. How do cultural perspectives on employment and gender roles influence the mental health of married individuals?

References:

Dooley, D., & Prause, J. (2005). Birth weight and mothers’ adverse employment change. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 46(2), 141–155. https://doi.org/10.1177/002214650504600202

Gove, W. R., & Geerken, M. R. (1977a). The effect of children and employment on the mental health of married men and women. Social Forces, 56(1), 66. https://doi.org/10.2307/2577413

Decken, C., Knitza, J., Witte, T., Fekete, S. P., Konitzny, M., Zink, A., Gauler, G., Wurth, P., Aries, P., Karberg, K., Kuhn, C., Schuch, F., Späthling-Mestekemper, S., Vorbrüggen, W., Englbrecht, M., Welcker, M., & RHADAR Group. (2021). A real-world rheumatology registry and research consortium: The german rheumadatenrheport (RHADAR) registry. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 23(5), e28164. https://doi.org/10.2196/28164

Ross, Catherine E., and John Mirowsky. “Does Employment Affect Health?” Journal of Health and Social Behavior, vol. 36, no. 3, 1995, pp. 230–43. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/2137340. Accessed 30 Nov. 2023.

Unpacking Household Duties: How Education and Career Influence Gender Roles at Home

December 11, 2023 /

Summary of Findings

For centuries, societal norms have prescribed a division of labor within households, often leaving women taking on the majority of domestic responsibilities. Traditionally, tasks like cooking, cleaning and caregiving have been deemed “women’s work,” while men have been less involved in these duties.

This imbalance has persisted across cultures, perpetuating the stereotype that housework is primarily a woman’s domain. However, it’s essential to recognize that these gender roles are not always present. These gender roles depend on multiple factors such as the education and occupation of both men and women, as the partner with no occupation might have more time spent in the household. This blog post dives into the correlation between the education level and career choice of men and the amount of domestic labor they participate in. 

Interestingly, studies suggest a correlation between a man’s education level and his involvement in domestic labor. Higher education often correlates with a greater likelihood of sharing household responsibilities. Men with more education tend to be more open to challenging traditional gender roles and participating more actively in domestic tasks. Studies show that men with a college education or higher were reported to spend approximately 8 hours per week on housework, compared to around 5 hours for men with a high school education or less. This correlation could be present due to the more consistent hours these men are working, which is most likely 9am-5pm. This stability will leave these higher educated men more energy and time for household duties. On the other hand, men with a lower education level are often in the situation of working longer hours, including overtime, which would push their work day over ten hours long. In this scenario, at the end of the workday, these working men are exhausted and do not have enough energy to perform household labor. However, this correlation isn’t absolute, as individual attitudes, upbringing, and societal influences also significantly shape one’s approach to household labor regardless of educational background.

With these findings, it is also important to look at women and the correlation between their education level and career with the amount of domestic labor they do. It is found that highly educated women tend to do less housework than those with lower education levels, but like men, they prioritize childcare responsibilities. On average, women with college degrees spent around 7-10 hours per week on housework, whereas those without a college education spent approximately 13-17 hours per week. These findings emphasize the complexity of household dynamics, and shed light on the factors like education, societal norms, and the allocation of tasks, that affect the division of household labor between married couples. These findings prompt discussions on evolving gender roles and the need for more equitable distributions of responsibilities within modern households.

Although the results across studies show that improvements to the gender inequality in division of labor have certainly been made, men are increasingly more likely to do their share of household labor in recent years. However, one might argue that since the majority of the data we collected from case studies was conducted in the U.S. where cultural norms surrounding marriage and gender are progressive. Therefore, if the data was to be collected from second and third world countries the results could be very different. The general attitude and cultural norms surrounding women and marriage in these countries are more traditional and idealize the man being the ruler of the household. Therefore the women are left with all of the household labor, resulting in an unequal division of labor.

Policy Recommendations

Flexible work hours and extended parental leave policies play pivotal roles in addressing the gendered division of labor within households. By advocating for flexible work schedules, particularly for professions requiring extended hours, both men and women can better manage their professional commitments alongside household responsibilities. This adaptation allows individuals to participate more actively in domestic duties without compromising their careers. Simultaneously, advocating for extended and equal parental leave policies ensures that men are encouraged and supported to take on more substantial caregiving roles during the crucial early stages of a child’s life. This not only fosters bonding between fathers and their children but also helps challenge traditional notions of childcare being predominantly a woman’s responsibility. These policies collectively contribute to breaking down societal barriers and fostering a more equitable division of household labor between genders.

Potential Consequence without Intervention

Without intervention, the continuation of traditional gender norms surrounding household labor could deepen, reinforcing the existing imbalance in domestic responsibilities. The persistence of these norms across cultures sustains the stereotype that housework primarily belongs to women, solidifying the societal belief that certain tasks are inherently feminine. This perpetuation not only limits the opportunities for men to actively engage in household chores but also burdens women with an unequal share of domestic duties, regardless of their educational or career achievements. In settings where cultural norms idealize men as the primary authority within households, the absence of intervention could solidify these gendered divisions, leaving women to bear the brunt of household labor. Such unaddressed disparities might delay progress towards more equitable distributions of responsibilities within households, perpetuating a cycle of inequality across societies, especially in regions where cultural attitudes toward gender roles remain deeply traditional.

Research Questions

Question 1: Are college educated women who obtain a high wage occupation more likely to stay single than other women?

Question 2: Is there any difference in division of labor at home between heterosexual couples and homosexual couples? If so, is this division between male couples different from that of female couples?

Question 3: What cultural beliefs affect who takes on more household responsibilities in different countries, and how does this influence the division of labor between genders?

 

References 

Catherine E. Ross, The Division of Labor at Home, Social Forces, Volume 65, Issue 3, March 1987, Pages 816–833, https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/65.3.816

Farkas, George. “Education, Wage Rates, and the Division of Labor between Husband and Wife.” Journal of Marriage and Family 38, no. 3 (1976): 473–83. https://doi.org/10.2307/350416.

Chiappori, Pierre-André, Murat Iyigun, and Yoram Weiss. 2009. “Investment in Schooling and the Marriage Market.” American Economic Review, 99 (5): 1689-1713. https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/aer.99.5.1689

Baker, Matthew J., and Joyce P. Jacobsen. “Marriage, Specialization, and the Gender Division of Labor.” Journal of Labor Economics 25, no. 4 (2007): 763–93. https://doi.org/10.1086/522907. 

Sanchez, Laura, and Elizabeth Thomson. “Becoming Mothers and Fathers: Parenthood, Gender, and the Division of Labor.” Gender and Society 11, no. 6 (1997): 747–72. http://www.jstor.org/stable/190148.

 

The Objectification of Women in the Media

December 11, 2023 /

By Alexandra Francis and Lillie Edwards

Overview:

The objectification of women in the media refers to the fact that women are often stereotyped and sexualized in various forms of media. Examples of this can be seen on television, in movies, lyrics in popular music, and even in sports media. Often, on screen, women are portrayed in a manner that highlights physical attraction and reinforces gender stereotypes regarding the intellectual and professional ability of women. Studies show that holding women to the unrealistic standards that are seen on screen skews society’s view of women, as well as how women view themselves (Rousseau, 2019). A large portion of modern media is music, and women are the most frequent targets of objectification within music lyrics (Flynn, 2016). Additionally, female athletes are viewed more on their appearance than their athleticism (Daniels, 2020). Female athletes are often sexualized and are not taken as seriously as male athletes. The depiction of women in the media has a variety of long-term consequences in society through the reinforcement of gender stereotypes which increases self-esteem issues within women. 

Policy Recommendations:

Policy intervention could be used to minimize the long-term effects of objectification of women in future media. Although old media are abundant in which women are objectified and minimized, moving forward, policies could be put in place that create stricter guidelines on the portrayal of women in the media. Additionally, there should be more education and awareness regarding the long-term impacts of how women are depicted on screen. Young men and women should be made aware of the impacts of what media they are consuming. Finally, new media could paint women in a light that contradicts society’s narrow expectations and defies gender stereotypes. 

Consequences Without Interventions:

Objectification can have very negative consequences on the way women view themselves. Women are depicted in the media and focused on their appearance and are less likely to be featured in a manner that depicts them as smart and hard-working (Santoniccolo, 2023). This sets a precedent that women must look or be a certain way. These are unrealistic measures and can cause women to feel the need to change the way they look. Objectification in women can also be connected back to poor mental health and eating disorders (Szymanski, 2007). These are serious consequences women are faced with caused by irrational standards media sets for women. 

Research Questions:

Some feature research can be done to help come to a better understanding of why our worldviews women the way it does, and if a change is on the horizon. A good research question would be, how do different ages in males affect their levels of objectifying women? Do older men objectify women more or do younger men? Research on this could help us understand whether there has been any improvement in media to help change the views of the younger generation of males today. Future research on the financial differences between popular movies with women being severely objectified versus popular movies where women are not objectified would be very telling. I wonder if there is a major difference and if that has changed over time due to how films have changed.

References: 

Daniels, E. A. (2009). Sex Objects, Athletes, and Sexy Athletes. Journal of Adolescent Research. https://doi.org/10.1177/0743558409336748

Daniels, Elizabeth A., et al. “Sexualized and Athletic: Viewers’ Attitudes toward Sexualized Performance Images of Female Athletes – Sex Roles.” SpringerLink, Springer US, 21 Apr. 2020, link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11199-020-01152-y.

Flynn, M.A., Craig, C.M., Anderson, C.N. et al. Objectification in Popular Music Lyrics: An Examination of Gender and Genre Differences. Sex Roles 75, 164–176 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-016-0592-3

Lampis, J., Cataudella, S., Busonera, A. et al. The moderating effect of gender role on the relationships between gender and attitudes about body and eating in a sample of Italian adolescents. Eat Weight Disord 24, 3–11 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40519-017-0372-2

Rousseau, A., Rodgers, R.F. & Eggermont, S. A Short-Term Longitudinal Exploration of the Impact of TV Exposure on Objectifying Attitudes Toward Women in Early Adolescent Boys. Sex Roles 80, 186–199 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-018-0925-5

Societal Gender Norms and Workplace Discrimination

December 11, 2023 /

While there has been significant progress made in creating a more fair and equal work environment for men and women, it is impossible to ignore the gender-related social norms that are still barriers for women in the workplace. Although these social norms may seem to be a series of micro interactions, they accumulate into a grand macro problem of workplace discrimination against women. Donna Bobbitt-Zeher focuses on the specific experiences women have at work and emphasizes, “We must look at processes that lead to unequal outcomes for women and men. The real challenge is to uncover how discrimination unfolds in the workplace” (Bobbitt-Zeher, 2011). In the article there is a focus on the discrimination of Christy Kinneson as opposed to hypothetical scenarios. Christy Kinneson was a clerk in a manufacturing plant and comments were made by others in the plant regarding her nature. As described in the article, “Those managers clearly could not tolerate a woman acting like a man.” This negative view was translated into her firing as insubordinate. Although the work environment was described as “rough and tumble” with vulgar language commonplace and men engaging in similar or worse conduct, her General Manager justified her firing, stating, “she showed a blatant disregard and lack of respect for her supervisors…” (Bobbitt-Zeher, 2011). Obviously, Ms. Kinneson faced a double standard as to fire a member of the opposite gender based on insubordination but to not hold the men at the plant to that same standard is an example of why gender norms are still great obstacles for women in the workplace and are standing in the way of economic equality. 

Additionally, societal norms often create barriers and obstacles for women’s entry and those that are working their way up the corporate “ladder.” Women often receive discrimination, prejudice, performance devaluation, and general backlash when trying to succeed in the workforce. “For instance, across occupations, median weekly earnings diverge by 18.5% between men and women and these gaps widen in higher-paid occupations” (Garcia, 2022). It is important to emphasize that these gaps widen as the jobs become higher paid, meaning that discrimination could very possibly increase the higher up the “work ladder” a woman climbs.  Additionally, when women do climb up the corporate ladder, there is also a great deal of differences in leadership that men and women possess. These differences affect long term workplace success and equality among genders. Unfortunately, women only hold 6.2% of CEO positions among S&P 500 companies and make up a combined 26% of managing directors and CEOS in the workforce, resulting in real workplace change for women being a rarity (Garcia, 2022). Finally, it is important to note that, “…about 42% of working women (compared to 22% of working men) reported that they experienced job discrimination–such as earning less for the same job and being treated as if they were not competent–because of their gender” (Garcia, 2022). These statistics support the idea that societal norms often prevent women from real leadership positions resulting in the continued discrimination of women in the workplace.

Finally, women receive gender-related discrimination in the workplace even when they are in positions of power to make corporate decisions. In Tai Kenneth’s article “Gender, Bottom-Line Mentality, and Workplace Mistreatment…”  she focuses on how women with higher bottom-line decision-making tendencies are viewed to be higher gender norm violations than men with lower bottom-line decision-making tendencies (Kenneth 2022). These gender norm violations often result in mistreatment and discrimination. Due to this, we can see the preferred societal standards that women are held to, and the less leeway women have with gender norms in the workplace as opposed to men.  In conclusion, societal norms still greatly dictate gender workplace discrimination and women are still unfairly targeted as a result. 

  • What policies can be implemented to ensure that men and women are receiving fair workplace treatment?
  • What role do traditional family dynamics have on women’s career paths? 
  •  Does the sterotypical representation of women in media have an impact  on women’s success rates in their career work?

Works Cited 

Hanek, K. J., &  Garcia, S. M. (2022).  Barriers for women in the workplace: A social psychological perspective. Social and Personality Psychology Compass 

Bobbitt-Zeher, Donna. “Gender Discrimination at Work: Connecting Gender Stereotypes, Institutional Policies, and Gender Composition of Workplace.” Gender and Society, vol. 25, no. 6, 2011, pp. 764–86. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/23212199. Accessed 19 Oct. 2023.

Tai, Kenneth, et al. “Gender, Bottom-Line Mentality, and Workplace Mistreatment: The Roles of Gender Norm Violation and Team Gender Composition.” Journal of Applied Psychology 107.5 (2022): 854-65. ProQuest. Web. 27 Nov. 2023.

 

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Rainbow Ceiling: The Reality of LGBTQ+ Workplace Challenges

December 11, 2023 /

By Md Hamim Mahdie and Ama C. Ndukwe

Research Question: How Does Sexual Orientation Impact Employment, Earnings, and Job Satisfaction, and to What Extent Does Intersectionality with Racial Identity Amplify These Effects?

Introduction


The general issue of sexual orientation within the scope of employment, job satisfaction, and earnings is incredibly multifaceted and complicated. Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) employees have faced profound workplace discrimination and barriers to equal treatment historically in the United States and other parts of the world. While legislative protections have increased over time, their implementation is inadequate to this day. Significant gaps persist when it comes to equitable hiring practices, wages, job satisfaction, and advancement opportunities across sexual orientations. Moreover, LGBTQ people of color disproportionately bear the brunt of compounded discrimination. This paper discusses how workplace discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity persists, disproportionately impacting employment, earnings, and job satisfaction for LGBTQ individuals, with intersectional biases related to race further amplifying barriers for LGBTQ people of color.

Summary of the issue

The literature around LGBTQ, while limited, portrays astounding evidence of discrimination in multiple areas. LGBTQ+ individuals are at a higher risk of experiencing job dissatisfaction as compared to their heterosexual counterparts (Bayrakdar, 2022). Research done by Bayrakdar, collected from a 2011 Workplace Employment Relations Study (WERS), found that British men who identified as bisexual experienced much less job satisfaction in comparison to heterosexual men (Bayrakdar, 2022). Analyzing data from the 1990 US Census, Allegretto and Arthur (2001) found bisexual employees had nearly 2 lower job satisfaction “levels” compared to heterosexual men. Further, heterosexual men and women reported higher satisfaction than their LGBTQ colleagues generally. The research suggests a “bisexual penalty” wherein workplace environments and policies fail to curb heteronormativity. Delving deeper into the economic impacts, Baumle and Poston (2011) used multilevel modeling to uncover a 12.5% earnings deduction for partnered gay men compared to married heterosexual males. This effect shrinks but holds even after controlling for productivity indicators, implying a clear discrimination component. Moreover, Whitfield, Daniel L., et al. (2014) examines anti-LGBTQ discrimination, with a focus on differences by race. It looks specifically at housing and employment discrimination and finds that LGBTQ people of color experience higher rates of anti-LGBTQ discrimination compared to white LGBTQ people. In terms of employment, 33.6% of black, 40.3% of Asian, 44.4% of Latino, and 49.2% of multiracial LGBTQ individuals reported workplace discrimination based on sexual orientation or gender identity. This compares to 37.7% of white LGBTQ individuals. The type of workplace discrimination includes lower salaries, fewer promotions, etc.

Policy Interventions

There are a plethora of policy interventions to be implemented in hopes of limiting and eventually stopping economic LGBTQ-related discrimination. Firstly, one could enact legal protections such as including LGBTQ+ identity as a protected class in the 1969 Civil Rights Act. This could make way for a plethora of anti-discrimination laws that could ensure the defense of such individuals. Additionally, implementing workforce training could subset the amount of bias perpetrated within the physical workplace. By introducing LGBTQ-related diversity training, employers can ensure a safer space for all individuals. Continually, within universities and companies, providing support and help to those who identify. This could potentially present as an affinity group for trans black women that teaches self-advocacy, amongst other valuable tools. Finally, within all these different interventions, it is vital to keep in mind intersectionality and its importance in ensuring the safety of LGBTQ+ identifying individuals. 


Effects of No Policy Intervention

According to a 2019 report by McKinsey & Company, companies with diverse demographics are 25% more likely to experience above-average profitability (McKinsey & Company, 2020). Besides, the authors of Mallory, Christy, et al.(2017) found that there was a significant cost derived from anti-LGBTQ+ practices, costing a yearly revenue of $47-$238 billion in Texas alone. Therefore, the economic impact on the US and the rest of the world is beyond our imagination. Moreover, without concerted efforts to enact policies protecting the LGBTQ community, toxic workplace environments will persist. This risks further mental distress for LGBTQ-identifying staff and stagnated diversity. Ultimately, unequal treatment will hinder companies and the broader economy by depriving talent based on non-job-related factors. Everyone loses when discrimination pervades the workplace.

Infographic

Infographic by Ama and Hamim

References

Whitfield, D. L., Y Voice, T., & Kalvan, M. (2014). Queer is the new Black? Not so much: Racial disparities in anti-LGBTQ discrimination. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Social Services, 26(4). https://doi-org.ezproxy.trincoll.edu/10.1080/10538720.2014.955556

Bayrakdar, S., & King, A. (2022). Job Satisfaction and Sexual Orientation in Britain. Work, Employment and Society, 36(1), 21-39. https://doi.org/10.1177/0950017020980997

Baumle, A. K., & Poston, D. L. (2011). The economic cost of homosexuality: Multilevel analyses. Social Forces, 89(3), 1005–1031. https://www.jstor.org/stable/41290098

Allegretto, S. A., & Arthur, M. M. (2001). An empirical analysis of homosexual/heterosexual male earnings differentials: Unmarried and unequal? Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 54(3), 631–646. https://doi.org/10.2307/2695994

Mallory, C., & Sears, B. (2015). Employment Discrimination Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity in Michigan. The Williams Institute at UCLA School of Law. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep34925

Badgett, M. V. L., Nezhad, S., Waaldijk, K., & van der Meulen Rodgers, Y. (2019). The relationship between LGBT inclusion and economic development: Macro-level evidence. World Development, 120, 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2019.03.011

Mallory, C., et al. (2017). Economic Impact of Stigma and Discrimination against LGBT People. In The Impact of Stigma and Discrimination Against LGBT People in Texas (pp. 54–72). The Williams Institute at UCLA School of Law. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep35061.7

McKinsey & Company. (2020). Diversity wins: How inclusion matters. McKinsey & Company. https://www.mckinsey.com/~/media/mckinsey/featured%20insights/diversity%20and%20inclusion/diversity%20wins%20how%20inclusion%20matters/diversity-wins-how-inclusion-matters-vf.pdf

Discrimination in the Hiring Process Based on Racial Differences

December 11, 2023 /

By Jonas Wachman Goncalves and Ryan Carey

Summary

Discrimination in the hiring process has been a concerning issue, surrounding various forms such as racial, gender, age, and ethnic bias. Despite having some advancements in encouraging diversity and inclusion, many individuals continue to face unequal treatment based on their race. Racial minorities and individuals from marginalized communities often encounter barriers to equal opportunities, fair pay, and career advancement. Discrimination can manifest in biases, unequal representation in leadership roles, and even in hiring processes. Addressing workplace discrimination requires efforts from organizations to promote inclusive environments, raise awareness, and implement anti-discrimination policies.

Depiction

Evidence

Cydney’s (2021) article explores how white evaluators tend to favor white candidates for high-status roles and black candidates for lower-status roles, maintaining a hierarchical structure. The study investigates three factors influencing this bias: role status, representativeness, and hierarchy profiling. Through three experiments, white evaluators assessed the suitability of white and black candidates for different roles. Predictably, the study found that evaluators prefer white male applicants for high-status roles, while black applicants were seen as more suitable for lower-status roles.

In another article, Identical applicant but different outcomes: The impact of gender versus race salience in hiring. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, dives into the impact that race and gender have on the hiring decisions of an Asian American woman in STEM fields. The authors, Rattan, A., Steele, J., & Ambady, N. (2019) created three different studies using student samples. In these studies, the authors makes either the race or gender of the applicant apparent when they apply to jobs that are typically worked by men. When the Asian woman’s race was made notable with her application, male evaluators were more likely to hire and offer higher pay in science and technology-related fields. However, when just gender was made apparent in the application the opposite was seen. In both articles, we see immense examples of racial bias in the hiring process.

Another instance of hiring discrimination is seen in a study done by Bertrand in (2004) where researchers conducted an experiment assessing racial bias in job hiring. They sent out fake resumes in response to job ads in Boston and Chicago, altering the names of the applicants to sound either African American or White. The findings demonstrated significant discrimination against resumes with African American names, which received 50% fewer interview callbacks than those with White-sounding names.

Consequences

There are many consequences that arise from biased hiring processes. Firstly, it continues the systemic racial hierarchy that white men have controlled since the start of slavery. If people of diverse backgrounds, race, or even gender are not given the same opportunity the system will never be broken. As well as diversity not being introduced into places of influence. Additionally, implicit bias is another concept holding back equality in the hiring process. Implicit biased does and can lead to employers making unfair and discriminatory decisions. It also brings up the issue of hiring someone white who is less qualified than someone of a different race.

Policy Intervetntion

By promoting diversity, equity, and inclusion, workplaces can become more supportive and respectful of the diversification of human experiences. Ongoing education and systemic changes are crucial to creating workplaces that truly embody the principles of equality and fairness for all races. A policy recommendation that would help create an inclusive workforce would be to create a blind hiring process. Suggesting that to minimize bias, employers should remove names, race, gender, and other identifying information from resumes in the initial screening process. By creating a blind hiring process there would be limited bias in the hiring process. The hiring of someone would come down to what they have accomplished on their resume.

Questions

  1. Why after so many years of trying to end racial bias do we see that top corporate positions are predominantly run by white men?
  2. How can we create policies and changes that will help break this cycle of underrepresentation?  

Sources

Rattan, A., Steele, J., & Ambady, N. (2019). Identical applicant but different outcomes: The impact of gender versus race salience in hiring. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 22(1), 80-97.

Cydney H. Dupree, Brittany Torrez (2021). Hierarchy profiling: How and why a job’s perceived impact on inequality affects racial hiring evaluations, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, Volume 96.

Bertrand, M., & Mullainathan, S. (2004). Are Emily and Greg more employable than Lakisha and Jamal? A field experiment on labor market discrimination. American Economic Review, 94(4), 991-1013.

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